ÿWPC  Êg;òˆÐLH.ìû(ìû¨këX , dr¨•’|ì^4}4ÿovŸà÷3È\;ùxHL§x`ÈYÞÆ§ðš°< ouK(÷ >l.\—U¾÷h*…Š*(»üõùD}æc’¬é—Œ{N¡[€€³¦vûLUtœƒl+Kû ¥'xôœ™ŠŸµÕé={è,;fZ2r²ZÜn-¯$jþ=ÉÅÂás"4³}”uõ”1¾[êÄŽm€3'c̿ފßqxµ­£ípP’m3ÈH&§É4qëY–ºc–éhà÷Œ9™"§8ýË=?7ü<$/ž?±‰q,«¶î‡»£ I+¬kÏã³åã½d®Ò+Ò4Ð^U>B~€ 0šþ 0k˜U*X-…X‹ã 0Nó 0¶A#É÷UNÀ % M ( N@ ^ B wN 4R f mh ô\  `‹&Times New Roman' Mr Madisons Report of 1800 on the Kentucky-Virginia Resolutions ITS0ITS .   hÿÿ:Default ParaDefault Paragraph FontÔ€ôôôÔÔ€XXXÔHÿÿ4HyperlinkHyperlinkóóòòÔ ˆ ÔóóÔ  Ô%ä2¼A`‹Arialhttp://www.barefootsworld.net/constit9.htmlVAhttp://www.barefootsworld.net/consti10.html#|x(ÍO$——ÔÿÔòòóóÔÿÔ(ŽE<$¡¡ÒܰÒÒܰÒÔ..ÔÔ  ÔÔ  ÔÓ  ÓÔ€ X \XX XÔÔ€X \XX X \Ô˜HP LaserJet 2420 PCL 6ÈÈÈÈÈÈÈÈ0(ÖÃ9 Z‹6Times New Roman Regular X·O4  sX›3PagesÿU‹ÿÀÀÀÝ ƒ E! Ðrepresentatives€of€the€people€in€the€legislature,€are€not€only€exempt€themselves,Ð Ô#$" Ðfrom€distrust,€but€are€considered€as€sufficient€guardians€of€the€rights€of€theirÐ º$ # Ðconstituents€against€the€danger€from€the€executive.€Hence€it€is€a€principle,€thatÐ  %ð $ Ðthe€parliament€is€unlimited€in€its€powers;€or€in€their€own€language,€is€omnipotent.Ð †&Ö!% ÐHence€too,€all€the€ramparts€for€protecting€the€rights€of€the€people,€such€as€theirÐ l'¼"& Ðmagna€carta,€their€bill€of€rights,€&c.€are€not€reared€against€the€parliament,€butÐ R(¢#' Ðagainst€the€royal€prerogative.€They€are€merely€legislative€precautions,€againstÐ 8)ˆ$( Ðexecutive€usurpations.€Under€such€a€government€as€this,€an€exemption€of€theÐ *n%) Ðpress€from€previous€restraint€by€licensers€appointed€by€the€king,€is€all€theÐ +T&* Ðfreedom€that€can€be€secured€to€it.€Ð ê+:'+ ÐIn€the€United€States,€the€case€is€altogether€different.€ò òòòÔªÔThe€people,€not€theÐ Ð, (, Ðgovernment,€possess€the€absolute€sovereignty.ó óóóԪԀР¶-)- ÐThe€legislature,€no€less€than€the€executive,€is€under€limitations€of€power.Ð ° ÐEncroachments€are€regarded€as€possible€from€the€one,€as€well€as€from€the€other.Ð –æ ÐHence€in€the€United€States,€ò òòòÔªÔthe€great€and€essential€rights€of€the€people€areÐ |Ì Ðsecured€against€legislative,€as€well€as€against€executive€ambition.ó óóóÔªÔ€They€areÐ b² Ðsecured,€not€by€laws€paramount€to€prerogative;€but€by€ò òòòÔªÔconstitutions€paramountÐ H˜ Ðto€laws.ó óóóÔªÔ€This€security€of€the€freedom€of€the€press,€requires€that€it€should€beÐ . ~ Ðexempt,€not€only€from€previous€restraint€by€the€executive,€as€in€Great€Britain;€butÐ  d Ðfrom€legislative€restraint€also;€and€this€exemption,€to€be€effectual,€must€be€anÐ ú J Ðexemption,€not€only€from€the€previous€inspection€of€licensers,€but€from€theÐ à 0 Ðsubsequent€penalty€of€laws.€Ð Æ   ÐThe€state€of€the€press,€therefore,€under€the€common€law,€can€not€in€this€point€ofÐ ¬ ü  Ðview,€be€the€standard€of€its€freedom€in€the€United€States.€Ð ’â  ÐBut€there€is€another€view,€under€which€it€may€be€necessary€to€consider€thisÐ xÈ  Ðsubject€It€may€be€alleged,€that€although€the€security€for€the€freedom€of€the€press,Ð ^®  Ðbe€different€in€Great€Britain€and€in€this€country;€being€a€legal€security€only€in€theÐ D”  Ðformer,€and€a€ò òòòÔªÔconstitutional€securityó óóóÔªÔ€in€the€latter;€and€although€there€may€be€aÐ *z  Ðfarther€difference,€in€an€extension€of€the€freedom€of€the€press,€here,€beyond€anÐ ` Ðexemption€from€previous€restraint,€to€an€exemption€from€subsequent€penaltiesÐ öF Ðalso;€yet€that€the€actual€legal€freedom€of€the€press,€under€the€common€law,€mustÐ Ü, Ðdetermine€the€degree€of€freedom,€which€is€meant€by€the€terms€and€which€isÐ Â Ðconstitutionally€secured€against€both€previous€and€subsequent€restraints.€Ð ¨ø ÐThe€committee€are€not€aware€of€the€difficulty€of€all€general€questions€which,€mayÐ ŽÞ Ðturn€on€the€proper€boundary€between€the€liberty€and€licentiousness€of€the€press.Ð tÄ ÐThey€will€have€it€therefore€for€consideration€only,€how€far€the€difference€betweenÐ Zª Ðthe€nature€of€the€British€government,€and€the€nature€of€the€AmericanÐ @ Ðgovernments,€and€the€practice€under€the€latter,€may€shew€the€degree€of€rigor€inÐ &v Ðthe€former,€to€be€inapplicable€to,€and€not€obligatory€in,€the€latter.€Ð  \ ÐThe€nature€of€government€elective,€limited€and€responsible,€in€all€their€branches,Ð òB Ðmay€well€be€supposed€to€require€a€greater€freedom€of€animadversion,€than€mightÐ Ø( Ðbe€tolerated€by€the€genius€of€such€a€government€as€that€of€Great€Britain.€In€theÐ ¾ Ðlatter,€it€is€a€maxim,€that€the€king,€an€hereditary,€not€a€responsible€magistrate,Ð ¤ô Ðcan€do€no€wrong,€and€that€the€legislature,€which€in€two€thirds€of€its€composition,Ð Š Ú Ðis€also€hereditary,€not€responsible,€can€do€what€it€pleases.€In€the€United€States,Ð p!À  Ðthe€executive€magistrates€are€not€held€to€be€infallible,€nor€the€legislatures€to€beÐ V"¦! Ðomnipotent;€and€both€being€elective,€are€both€responsible.€Is€it€not€natural€andÐ <#Œ" Ðnecessary,€under€such€different€circumstances,€that€a€different€degree€ofÐ "$r# Ðfreedom,€in€the€use€of€the€press,€should€be€contemplated?€Ð %X $ ÐIs€not€such€an€inference€favored€by€what€is€observable€in€Great€Britain€itself?Ð î%>!% ÐNotwithstanding€the€general€doctrine€of€the€common€law,€on€the€subject€of€theÐ Ô&$"& Ðpress,€and€the€occasional€punishment€of€those,€who€use€it€with€a€freedomÐ º' #' Ðoffensive€to€the€government;€it€is€well€known,€that€with€respect€to€the€responsibleÐ  (ð#( Ðmembers€of€the€government,€where€the€reasons€operating€here,€becomeÐ †)Ö$) Ðapplicable€there;€the€freedom€exercised€by€the€press,€and€protected€by€the€publicÐ l*¼%* Ðopinion,€far€exceeds€the€limits€prescribed€by€the€ordinary€rules€of€law.€TheÐ R+¢&+ Ðministry,€who€are€responsible€to€impeachment,€are€at€all€times,€animadverted€on,Ð 8,ˆ', Ðby€the€press,€with€peculiar€freedom;€and€during€the€elections€for€the€House€ofÐ -n(- ÐCommons,€the€other€responsible€part€of€the€government,€the€press€is€employedÐ ° Ðwith€as€little€reserve€towards€the€candidates.€Ð –æ ÐThe€practice€in€America€must€be€entitled€to€much€more€respect.€In€every€state,Ð |Ì Ðprobably,€in€the€union,€the€press€has€exerted€a€freedom€in€canvassing€the€meritsÐ b² Ðand€measures€of€public€men,€of€every€description,€which€has€not€been€confinedÐ H˜ Ðto€the€strict€limits€of€the€law.„€ò òòòÔªÔOn€this€footing,€the€freedom€of€the€press€hasÐ . ~ Ðstood;€on€this€footing€it€yet€stands.ó óóóÔªÔ€And€it€will€not€be€a€breach,€either€of€truthÐ  d Ðor€of€candour,€to€say,€that€no€persons€or€presses€are€in€the€habit€of€moreÐ ú J Ðunrestrained€animadversions€on€the€proceedings€and€functionaries€of€the€StateÐ à 0 Ðgovernments,€than€the€persons€and€presses€most€zealous,€in€vindicating€the€actÐ Æ   Ðof€Congress€for€punishing€similar€animadversions€on€the€government€of€theÐ ¬ ü  ÐUnited€States.€Ð ’â  ÐThe€last€remark€will€not€be€understood,€as€claiming€for€the€State€governments,€anÐ xÈ  Ðimmunity€greater€than€they€have€heretofore€enjoyed.€Some€degree€of€abuse€isÐ ^®  Ðinseparable€from€the€proper€use€of€every€thing,€and€in€no€instance€is€this€moreÐ D”  Ðtrue,€than€in€that€of€the€press.€It€has€accordingly€been€decided€by€the€practice€ofÐ *z  Ðthe€States,€that€it€is€better€to€leave€a€few€of€its€noxious€branches,€to€their€luxuriantÐ ` Ðgrowth,€than€by€pruning€them€away,€to€injure€the€vigor€of€those€yielding€theÐ öF Ðproper€fruits.€And€can€the€wisdom€of€this€policy€be€doubted€by€any€who€reflect,Ð Ü, Ðthat€to€the€press€alone,€chequered€as€it€is€with€abuses,€the€world€is€indebted€forÐ Â Ðall€the€triumphs€which€have€been€gained€by€reason€and€humanity;€over€error€andÐ ¨ø Ðoppression;€who€reflect€that€to€the€same€beneficient€source,€the€United€StatesÐ ŽÞ Ðowe€much€of€the€lights€which€conducted€them€to€the€rank€of€a€free€andÐ tÄ Ðindependent€nation;€and€which€have€improved€their€political€system,€into€a€shapeÐ Zª Ðso€auspicious€to€their€happiness.€Had€ò òòòÔªÔ"sedition€acts,"ó óóóÔªÔ€forbidding€everyÐ @ Ðpublication€that€might€bring€the€constituted€agents€into€contempt€or€disrepute,€orÐ &v Ðthat€might€excite€the€hatred€of€the€people€against€the€authors€of€unjust€orÐ  \ Ðpernicious€measures,€been€uniformly€enforced€against€the€press;€might€not€theÐ òB ÐUnited€States€have€been€languishing€at€this€day,€under€the€infirmities€of€a€sicklyÐ Ø( Ðconfederation?€Might€they€not€possibly€be€miserable€colonies,€groaning€under€aÐ ¾ Ðforeign€yoke?€Ð ¤ô ÐTo€these€observations€one€fact€will€be€added,€which€demonstrates€that€theÐ Š Ú Ðcommon€law€cannot€be€admitted€as€the€ò òòòÔªÔuniversaló óóóÔªÔ€expositor€of€American€terms,Ð p!À  Ðwhich€may€be€the€same€with€those€contained€in€that€law.€The€freedom€ofÐ V"¦! Ðconscience,€and€of€religion,€are€found€in€the€same€instruments,€which€assert€theÐ <#Œ" Ðfreedom€of€the€press.€It€will€never€be€admitted,€that€the€meaning€of€the€former,€inÐ "$r# Ðthe€common€law€of€England,€is€to€limit€their€meaning€in€the€United€States.€Ð %X $ ÐWhatever€weight€may€be€allowed€to€these€considerations,€the€committee€do€not,Ð î%>!% Ðhowever,€by€any€means,€intend€to€rest€the€question€on€them.€They€contend€thatÐ Ô&$"& Ðthe€article€of€amendment,€instead€of€supposing€in€Congress,€a€power€that€mightÐ º' #' Ðbe€exercised€over€the€press,€provided€its€freedom€be€not€abridged,€was€meant€asÐ  (ð#( Ða€ò òòòÔªÔpositive€denial€to€Congress,€of€any€power€whatever€on€the€subject.ó óóóԪԀР†)Ö$) ÐTo€demonstrate€that€this€was€the€true€object€of€the€article,€it€will€be€sufficient€toÐ l*¼%* Ðrecall€the€circumstances€which€led€to€it,€and€to€refer€to€the€explanationÐ R+¢&+ Ðâ âaccompanying€the€article.€Ð 8,ˆ', ÐWhen€the€Constitution€was€under€the€discussions€which€preceded€its€ratification,Ð ° Ðâ âit€is€well€known,€that€great€apprehensions€were€expressed€by€many,€lest€theÐ –æ Ðomission€of€some€positive€exception€from€the€powers€delegated,€of€certain€rights,Ð |Ì Ðand€of€the€freedom€of€the€press€particularly,€might€expose€them€to€the€danger€ofÐ b² Ðbeing€drawn€by€construction€within€some€of€the€powers€vested€in€Congress;€moreÐ H˜ Ðespecially€of€the€power€to€make€all€laws€necessary€and€proper,€for€carrying€theirÐ . ~ Ðother€powers€into€execution.€In€reply€to€this€objection,€it€was€invariably€urged€toÐ  d Ðbe€a€fundamental€and€characteristic€principle€of€the€Constitution€that€ò òòòÔªÔall€powersÐ ú J Ðnot€given€by€it,€were€reserved;ó óóóÔªÔ€that€ò òòòÔªÔno€powers€were€given€beyond€thoseÐ à 0 Ðenumerated€in€the€Constitution,ó óóóÔªÔ€and€such€as€were€fairly€incident€to€them;€thatÐ Æ   Ðthe€power€over€the€rights€in€question,€and€particularly€over€the€press,€was€neitherÐ ¬ ü  Ðamong€the€enumerated€powers,€nor€incident€to€any€of€them;€and€consequentlyÐ ’â  Ðthat€an€exercise€of€any€such€power,€would€be€a€ò òòòÔªÔmanifest€usurpation.ó óóóÔªÔ€It€isÐ xÈ  Ðpainful€to€remark,€how€much€the€arguments€now€employed€in€behalf€of€theÐ ^®  ÐSedition€Act€are€at€variance€with€the€reasoning€which€then€justified€theÐ D”  ÐConstitution,€and€invited€its€ratification.€Ð *z  ÐFrom€this€posture€of€the€subject,€resulted€the€interesting€question€in€so€many€ofÐ ` Ðthe€conventions,€whether€the€doubts€and€dangers€ascribed€to€the€ConstitutionÐ öF Ðshould€be€removed€by€any€amendments€previous€to€the€ratification,€or€beÐ Ü, Ðpostponed,€in€confidence€that€as€far€as€they€might€be€proper,€they€would€beÐ Â Ðintroduced€in€the€form€provided€by€the€Constitution.€The€latter€course€wasÐ ¨ø Ðadopted,€and€in€most€of€the€States,€the€ratifications€were€followed€by€propositionsÐ ŽÞ Ðand€instructions€for€rendering€the€Constitution€more€explicit,€and€more€safe€to€theÐ tÄ Ðrights,€not€meant€to€be€delegated€by€it.€Among€those€rights,€the€freedom€of€theÐ Zª Ðpress,€in€most€instances,€is€particularly€and€emphatically€mentioned.€The€firmÐ @ Ðand€very€pointed€manner,€in€which€it€is€asserted€in€ò òÔ4‚Ý ÔÝ‚ ÍOÝÔÿÔòòÝ  ÝÔ5  ÔÝ‚ÿÿÿÝóóòòÔˆÿÔÝ  Ýthe€proceedings€of€theÐ &v Ðconvention€of€this€State€will€be€hereafter€seen.Ý‚ÿÿÿR@ƒ ÝóóÔÿˆÔÝ  ÝÔ6@ÔÝ‚ @ƒ ÝÔÿÔÝ  ÝÔ7Ý H@Ôó ó€Ð  \ ÐIn€pursuance€of€the€wishes€thus€expressed,€the€first€Congress€that€assembledÐ òB Ðunder€the€constitution,€Ô4‚Ý ÔÝ‚ ÍOÝÔÿÔòòÝ  ÝÔ5  ÔÝ‚ÿÿÿÝóóòòÔˆÿÔÝ  Ýproposed€certain€amendmentsÝ‚ÿÿÿFBƒ ÝóóÔÿˆÔÝ  ÝÔ6úAÔÝ‚ Bƒ ÝÔÿÔÝ  ÝÔ7Ý !% Ðterms.€ò òòò"The€Convention€of€a€number€of€the€States€having€at€the€time€of€theirÐ Ô&$"& Ðadopting€the€Constitution,€expressed€a€desire,€in€order€to€preventÐ º' #' Ðmisconstructions€or€abuse€of€its€powers,€that€further€ÔªÔdeclaratory€andÐ  (ð#( ÐrestrictiveÔªÔ€clauses€should€be€added;€and€as€extending€the€ground€of€publicÐ †)Ö$) Ðconfidence€in€the€government,€will€best€ensure€the€beneficent€ends€of€itsÐ l*¼%* Ðinstitutions."ó óóó€Ð R+¢&+ ÐHere€is€the€most€satisfactory€and€authentic€proof,€that€the€several€amendmentsÐ 8,ˆ', Ðproposed,€were€to€be€considered€as€either€ò òòòÔªÔdeclaratory€or€restrictive;ó óóóÔªÔ€andÐ -n(- Ðwhether€the€one€or€the€other,€as€corresponding€with€the€desire€expressed€by€aÐ ° Ðnumber€of€the€States,€and€as€extending€the€ground€of€public€confidence€in€theÐ –æ Ðgovernment.€Ð |Ì ÐUnder€any€other€construction€of€the€amendment€relating€to€the€press,€ò òòòÔªÔthan€that€itÐ b² Ðdeclared€the€press€to€be€wholly€exempt€from€the€power€of€Congress,ó óóóÔªÔ€theÐ H˜ Ðamendment€could€neither€be€said€to€correspond€with€the€desire€expressed€by€aÐ . ~ Ðnumber€of€the€States,€nor€be€calculated€to€extend€the€ground€of€publicÐ  d Ðconfidence€in€the€government.€Ð ú J ÐNay€more;€the€construction€employed€to€justify€the€"Sedition€Act,"€would€exhibit€aÐ à 0 Ðphenomenon,€without€a€parallel€in€the€political€world.€It€would€exhibit€a€number€ofÐ Æ   Ðrespectable€States,€as€denying€first€that€any€power€over€the€press€was€delegatedÐ ¬ ü  Ðby€the€Constitution;€as€proposing€next,€that€an€amendment€to€it,€should€explicitlyÐ ’â  Ðdeclare€that€no€such€power€was€delegated;€and€finally,€as€concurring€in€anÐ xÈ  Ðamendment€actually€recognizing€or€delegating€such€a€power.€Ð ^®  ÐIs€then€the€Federal€government,€it€will€be€asked,€destitute€of€every€authority€forÐ D”  Ðrestraining€the€licentiousness€of€the€press,€and€for€shielding€itself€against€theÐ *z  Ðlibelous€attacks€which€may€be€made€on€those€who€administer€it?€Ð ` ÐThe€Constitution€alone€can€answer€this€question.€If€no€such€power€be€expresslyÐ öF Ðdelegated,€and€it€be€not€both€necessary€and€proper€to€carry€into€execution€anÐ Ü, Ðexpress€power;€above€all,€ò òòòÔªÔif€it€be€expressly€forbidden€by€a€declaratoryÐ Â Ðamendment€to€the€Constitution,ó óóóÔªÔ€the€answer€must€be,€Ô€£eä£XXuÔò òòòÔªÔthat€the€FederalÐ ¨ø Ðgovernment€is€destitute€of€all€such€authority.Ô€XuX££eäÔó óóóԪԀР«û ÐAnd€might€it€not€be€asked€in€turn,€whether€it€is€not€more€probable,€under€all€theÐ ®þ Ðcircumstances€which€have€been€reviewed,€that€the€authority€should€be€withheldÐ ”ä Ðby€the€Constitution,€than€that€it€should€be€left€to€a€vague€and€violent€construction:Ð zÊ Ðwhilst€so€much€pains€were€bestowed€in€enumerating€other€powers,€and€so€manyÐ `° Ðless€important€powers€are€included€in€the€enumeration.€Might€it€not€be€likewiseÐ F– Ðasked,€whether€the€anxious€circumspection€which€dictated€so€many€ò òòòÔªÔpeculiaró óóóÔªÔÐ ,| Ðlimitations€on€the€general€authority,€would€be€unlikely€to€exempt€the€pressÐ b Ðaltogether€from€that€authority?€The€peculiar€magnitude€of€some€of€the€powersÐ øH Ðnecessarily€committed€to€the€Federal€government;€the€peculiar€duration€requiredÐ Þ. Ðfor€the€functions€of€some€of€its€departments;€the€peculiar€distance€of€the€seat€ofÐ Ä  Ðits€proceedings€from€the€great€body€of€its€constituents;€and€the€peculiar€difficultyÐ ª!ú  Ðof€circulating€an€adequate€knowledge€of€them€through€any€other€channel,€will€notÐ "à! Ðthese€considerations,€some€or€other€of€which€produced€other€exceptions€from€theÐ v#Æ" Ðpowers€of€ordinary€governments,€all€together,€account€for€the€policy€of€bindingÐ \$¬# Ðthe€hand€of€the€Federal€government,€from€touching€the€channel€which€alone€canÐ B%’ $ Ðgive€efficacy€to€its€responsibility€to€its€constituents;€and€of€having€those€whoÐ (&x!% Ðadminister€it,€to€a€remedy€for€injured€reputations,€under€the€same€laws,€and€in€theÐ '^"& Ðsame€tribunals,€which€protect€their€lives,€their€liberties,€and€their€properties.€ButÐ ô'D#' Ðthe€question€does€not€turn€either€on€the€wisdom€of€the€Constitution,€or€on€theÐ Ú(*$( Ðpolicy€which€gave€rise€to€its€particular€organization.€It€turns€on€the€actual€meaningÐ À)%) Ðof€the€instrument;€by€which€it€has€appeared,€that€a€power€over€the€press€is€clearlyÐ ¦*ö%* Ðexcluded,€from€the€number€of€powers€delegated€to€the€Federal€government.€Ð Œ+Ü&+ ÐÔ€X \XXXuÔÌ